Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences On the Potential of American Adults to Engage in Criminal Activity

Early childhood experiences are crucial developmental years that make up for the majority of adult life’s success. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are characterized as being a childhood recipient of “violence, abuse, or neglect, witnessing violence in the home.. community, [or] having a family member attempt or die by suicide” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). Correspondingly, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention goes on to reveal that adverse childhood experiences are “linked to chronic health problems, mental illness, and substance misuse in childhood,” (2021). As of 2023, the Journal of Injury Prevention reports that up to 62.8% of American adults have experienced 1 or more ACEs, with 22.4% experiencing 4 or more of these traumatic events during their childhood. A mere 14.9% of the American population faces no adverse childhood experience. Despite progressive strides toward the prevention of child abuse and neglect, the number of American children experiencing ACEs remains a substantial issue (Child Trend, 2018). This issue becomes especially evident as ACEs can impact the trajectory of an individual’s life into adulthood. According to the Journal for Nurse Practitioners, ACEs create significant changes in an individual’s brain growth, genetic expression, as well as their immune and hormonal systems (2018). The effect of ACEs becomes even clearer as medical evidence suggests neurological changes in the brains of healthy and neglected individuals. Margaret Sheridan, a clinical psychologist at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, led a study in which findings indicate that children who faced high-quality care from fosters resulted in brain volumes essentially 2.5 to 5.5% larger than their institutionalized peers. When children face neglect early on, the amygdala, a section of the brain responsible for cognitive and emotional function, including aggression control, faces a particular impact. The Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology establishes a distinction in amygdala development in neglected and healthy children, confirming that reduced amygdala activity results from childhood maltreatment (2015). Given the exceptionally widespread and harmful impacts of ACEs, an immensely strong response is required. Such a solution is especially crucial in the presence of a highly populated nation as is the United States. Thus, the impact of adverse childhood experiences on maturing Americans begs the question: What is the effect of adverse childhood experiences on the potential of American adults to engage in criminal activity?

Much research points to the existence of a relationship between ACE-afflicted Americans and criminal activity. For instance, the clear relation between adverse childhood experiences and the likelihood of American adults participating in misconduct originates from a lack of self-esteem. Carrie Mier, a criminal justice assistant professor at Indiana University East, credits a relationship between low self-esteem and illegal activities through a meta-analysis of 42 studies conducted on over 70,000 Americans from 1990 to 2015 (Journal of Deviant Behavior, 2017). In addition to Mier’s findings, the National Institute of Medicine reveals that the absence of self-confidence is significantly attributed to strife-filled adolescence during times of family bonding. Individuals in the first or lower quartiles of family bonding, defined as negative paternal experiences, exhibited scores of extremely low self-esteem (2014). Research indicates that those with a criminal history often exhibit absences in self-esteem, as affirmed by Mier. Further, in the article, “Moral Courage and Intelligent Disobedience,” by Ted Thomas, Director of the Department of Leadership and Command in the U.S. Army, and Ira Chaleff, president of Executive Coaching and Consulting Associates, self-esteem is highlighted as a pivotal player in the growth of strong personal, moral values. Thomas and Chaleff write, “[l]ove of self, not in a narcissistic sense but in a sense of being true to one’s values, is then at the root of moral courage and intelligent disobedience.” Therefore, the correlation between ACEs and criminal history stems from their role in fostering an individual’s lack of self-esteem. When faced with dilemmas,individuals with high self-esteem find themselves capable of navigating through morally conflicting circumstances, due to a natural sense of intrapersonal self-love and respect. Conversely, individuals without this quality become more susceptible to criminal activity, as revealed by an investigation led by the International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, published in 2019. The study showed that deficits in confidence contributed to a lower mentalizing capacity and an increased likelihood of lawless behavior in such individuals. Such claims are supported by MRI scans on the brains of healthy individuals and individuals beset with ACEs. Because of the impact of ACEs on sizable brain development, notably in the amygdala, cognitive function and emotional intelligence are impaired. This results in self-esteem and violence issues, contributing to lawless actions, as previously supported by Sheridan and the Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. Moreover, the National Institute of Medicine contends that incarcerated individuals, typically exhibiting reduced, or damaged, areas of the brain, were revealed to have less remorse and moral judgment towards their crimes (2021), supporting Thomas and Chaleff’s proposal on self-esteem’s contribution to the development of morals, which in turn affects the likelihood of misconduct. In correspondence, President Franklin D. Roosevelt reinforced the influence of self-esteem on personal morality and delinquency during his Inaugural Address. Roosevelt states that by respecting oneself, individuals extend that respect to others near them, which aligns with the assertions made by Thomas and Chaleff. Roosevelt’s assessment of moral ideology in regard to offender plausibility is also tied to an adolescent’s neurological development as ACEs impact neural, and therefore moral function, thus forming a connection between ACEs and criminal activity. This psychological phenomenon, termed the Golem Effect, results when individuals, set to low expectations by their superiors, achieve low performance as a result of those prior negative acknowledgments (Brescia University, 2017).Because children who grow up in neglected environments are often faced with damaging remarks and circumstances, such negative feelings are directly internalized into feelings of self-doubt. These adverse childhood experiences are then displayed in inner dialogue and low self-esteem, creating a cycle in which poor adolescent experiences result in inferior self-contemplation. Such feelings then manifest in external malefactors. Evidently, ACEs create the optimal hotbed for low self-esteem, emotional impairment, and lapses in moral judgment, all of which result in the prominent formation of cognitive deficiencies that feed into delinquent tendencies.

Nevertheless, some argue against the validity of a relationship between ACEs and criminal activity. Melissa Chipollini, a clinical psychologist at the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, underscores a connection between narcissism and high levels of crime (2022). Narcissism, characterized by high self-esteem, correlates to increased violent and criminal behaviors. On top of that, the World Health Organization (WHO) asserts that delinquent behavior is often “adopted because it inflates self-esteem through behavioral awards and psychological defense” (2010), defending the analysis that those with high self-esteem are likely to participate in delinquent behavior. The study concluded that individuals with high self-esteem are just as likely to commit crimes as those with low levels of self-esteem, thus refuting implications that low self-esteem contributes to crime. Research from the American Psychological Association further illustrates WHO’s study on the connection between high levels of narcissism and crime rates. Roy F. Baumeister and Joseph M. Boden, social psychologists at Case Western Reserve University, along with Laura Smart, a professor in health sciences at the University of Virginia, examined the effects of the ego on its contribution to aggressive behavior, concluding that “one major cause of violent response is threatened egotism” (2013). Under pressure, dangerous levels of self-esteem appear to constitute extremely threatening and often criminal behavior. As such, individuals with an unhealthy level of self-regard become especially prone to partaking in illegal activities. Despite this, when examining the effects of ACEs and self-esteem on criminal activity, much research still points to the existence of a relationship on a minimal, but significant, level. In the same study published by the World Health Organization, a lack of support from family is shown to invariably increase the chances of crimes committed by individuals. Although narcissistic individuals are revealed to be equally as vulnerable to misdemeanors as insecure individuals, a link between poor familial relationships and childhood neglect in increased crime rates still exemplifies the effect of ACEs on criminal history. Findings from the National Library of Medicine assert that children constantly cycle through and absorb data from their surroundings indiscriminately (2018). Thus, a child’s development is heavily dependent on their environment. As such, the need for preventative measures to mitigate the effects of ACEs on impressionable children and their futures is especially urgent. One method of prevention is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Cognitive-behavioral therapy, coined by psychologists due to their focus on cognitive health, aims to reduce the effects of traumatic experiences through coaching. Cognitive-behavioral therapy allows for cognitive restructuring, creating healthy coping styles in response to triggers and stress (National Library of Medicine, 2021). Specifically, therapists allow clients the opportunity to address long-term mental blocks, behaviors, and emotional triggers that are caused by ACEs during childhood. In a study performed by researcher Theo Lorenc from the University of York and his colleagues, cognitive-behavioral therapy significantly increased the mental health of individuals who experienced childhood neglect or abuse. Data from the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research further supports the need for CBT, stating that criminal activity can be reduced through the availability of behavioral health services (2021). The implementation of CBT for those afflicted with ACEs and incarcerated individuals can significantly reduce crime rates and mental health issues. To implement such a system, the U.S. federal government ought to allocate resources dedicated to funding behavioral health services, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, for the overall health and improvement of Americans nationwide.

While increased funding and usage of cognitive-behavioral therapies come with numerous benefits in assisting ACE-afflicted individuals and those with low self-esteem, barriers exist that hinder prospective access to treatment. One such barrier is cost. According to the National Library of Medicine, cognitive-behavioral therapies typically cost between $60 to $200 per session, averaging $100 per session, as of 2020. Individuals with limited financial resources due to debt, unemployment, or generally low socioeconomic status, are therefore unable to bear the high costs associated with CBTs. Therefore, the United States must establish a healthcare system that includes coverage for CBT costs through federal funding and volunteer initiatives. Costs can also be covered through proper health insurance, in which access to plans, such as Medicare and UnitedHealth Group, allow for comprehensive coverage of CBT sessions. Hence, the federal government needs to recruit qualified therapists and volunteers for nationwide access. As a result, properly integrated healthcare, educational programs, and research funding will help create a strong foundation to prevent criminal activity in traumatized adults and increase the well-being of Americans. Furthermore, steps need to be taken to combat the stigma and discrimination surrounding mental health. The National Alliance on Mental Illness asserts that mental health stereotypes impede job opportunities and social advancement (2024). Such discrimination may result in internalized negativity, eroding self-esteem, and perpetuating a cycle of resentment and illicit behaviors. By creating a positive environment for mental health discussion and openly encouraging ACE-affected individuals to share their experiences, prejudice surrounding mental health issues can be negated, decreasing the potential of low self-esteem in contribution to illegal behavior.

When discussing the implications of adverse childhood experiences on the potential of American adults to engage in criminal activity, many factors need to be taken into consideration. The impact of ACEs in creating low self-esteem, impaired neurological function, and inadequate moral development, all significantly contribute to the increased probability of delinquency. Although opposing perspectives exist on the effect of low self-esteem on crime, a significant relationship exists between individuals with ACEs and the potential for misdemeanors. Due to the advantageous outcomes of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing the effects of ACEs, and therefore misconduct, in individuals, CBT is supported as an increasingly effective method of treatment. Through the implementation of CBT, the United States could see a clear reduction in the amount of Americans beset with ACEs and its effects, consequently decreasing the rates of crime.

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